NAFTA: Gainers and Losers

Economic cooperation has been a trend in neighboring countries to promote a free-trade zone for the benefit of its constituent countries. The largest of such, the North American Free Trade Agreement, was found in 1994 by the three North American countries. The members of NAFTA are the US, Canada and Mexico which includes a total of 416 million people and a GDP totaling to $12 trillion (Pohlmann, 2006). NAFTA aimed to totally remove trade barriers between the members for 15 years, which is scheduled to be in 2009. It also reduces the non-tariff trade barriers like sanitary regulations significantly. Although NAFTA major advantages, many are against it. Most of them are in the non-economic areas, and following are examples: US labor unions, environmentalists and Mexican farmers. They believe that NAFTA has unfavorable effects on them. Not all Mexicans are against it, in fact some of them had high hopes that the implementation of this contract would help boost their economy (Pohlmann, 2006). The NAFTA issue is debated in the Congress, with three major subjects: employment, environment and immigration from Mexico to the US. Tariffs had been an important factor in NAFTA for tariffs are taxes on imports and it usually makes imported products more expensive in order top benefit local products. NAFTA participants agreed to cut down the tariffs by 50% and they also agreed to reduce tariffs to 0 in the succeeding fifteen years. Economists clearly saw the benefits NAFTA could have with all its participants. They based their reasoning with the principle of comparative advantage wherein their country would be more organized in creating their goods. Thus each country would produce the goods wherein they are more efficient in producing and they would trade those goods with the goods of other country (which they are very good in producing in their own). However, there are those who contested the free trade contract believing that it would have certain effect on employment as well as on income. There are those who argue that there would be a great deal of unemployment because of rivalry in Mexico. They argued that since wages are much lower in Mexico as compared to United States, then businessmen would start moving their businesses in Mexico. However, there are those who argue that the reason behind higher wages in US lies on the fact that worker efficiency is greater in US as compared to Mexico. NAFTA proved to have great consequence in terms of employment in US. According to a study conducted by the US International Trade Commission (ITI), the US government could gain moderately from a free trade agreement with Mexico. A historical study also showed that NAFTA could produce about 134, 000 jobs in the US. However, a simple method of study conducted by Baldwin and Kahane showed the effects NAFTA could have in terms of employment. The particular study had been conducted in order to see which division would have employment gains and which would undergo job losses. A tabular data had been used in order to create two variables, that of â€Å"gainers† and that of â€Å"losers†. Among the gainers are electrical and non-electrical machinery alike as well as rubber chemicals. However, on the side of the losers we have textiles, glass, leather products and the like. It is important to distinguish gainers from losers and thus an explanation is provided in the quotation be low. The term GAINERS is associated to the number of employees in areas that were projected to have job gains, while the term LOSERS is related to job losses (Kahane, 1996). Thus, the effect of NAFTA allowed a rise in trade in both Canada and Mexico. There is also no clear evidence that US indeed lose jobs because of Mexico. And all in all it showed that there are industries which gained because of the NAFTA agreement while there are also those industries that had had their share of losses as had been mentioned in this paper. Reference: Kahane, L. (1996). Congressional voting patterns on NAFTA: an empirical analysis – North American Free Trade Agreement [Electronic Version]. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology. Retrieved June 4, 2007 from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0254/is_n4_v55/ai_18910967. Pohlmann, D. (2006). The Economic Impact of NAFTA on Mexico [Electronic Version]. Scholarly Publishing House. Retrieved June 4, 2007 from http://www.grin.com/en/preview/67522.html. Rosson, P., Runge, F., & Moulton, K. S. Preferential Trading Arrangements: Gainers and Losers from Regional Trading Blocs [Electronic Version]. Retrieved June 4, 2007 from http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/agecon/trade/eight.html.      

Advertising Radio Fm Brand Essay

‘Advertising Radio FM Brand’ is famous case in Business Communication for MBA. In this article, I’ve written the answers of this case. Hope it will be beneficial for the students who seeking the answers to these questions: 1. What is non – verbal communication? Why do you suppose that this commercial relies primarily on non-verbal communication between a young man and a gorgeous woman? What types of non – verbal communication are being used in this case? 2. Would any of the non-verbal communications in this spot (ad) not work well in another culture? 3. What role does music play in this spot? Who is the target market? Here are the answers: 1. What is non – verbal communication? Why do you suppose that this commercial relies primarily on non-verbal communication between a young man and a gorgeous woman? What types of non – verbal communication are being used in this case? Ans.: Non-verbal communication means exchanging few words with other people without any speech and sound. The various ways of non-verbal communication are posture or body language, gesture, facial expressions such as eye contact or laughing or crying etc, symbolizing, drawings or symbols, emotions, etc. In this commercial ad, there is a non-verbal communication found in between a young man and gorgeous woman; that the man couldn’t understand due to loud sound of music she danced with and her expression what she wants to say. In this case of commercial ad, eye contact, smiling and waving are the non-verbal communication are being used. 2. Would any of the non-verbal communications in this spot (ad) not work well in another culture? Ans.: The thumbs-up sign has different meanings in different countries. In Japan, it means to money and in Iran it means something wrong or indecent. In Canada, excessive gesturing is generally avoided. 3. What role does music play in this spot? Who is the target market? Ans.: In this ad, music plays an important role; played loudly to promote a music channel i‘five’. The target market or audience on this spot is youths. Youths or youngsters who usually like to attend parties and loves music as one of their common leisure pursuit.

Anthem Essays - Sin, Social Philosophy, Crime, Dichotomies

Anthem The word I makes one an individual. In Ayn Rands Anthem the word I is lost and there is no individual. Just the collective people working for a common goal. The individual cannot survive in this world because it is a sin to set yourself apart as an individual. If it is a sin to be an individual wouldnt it be impossible to live without sinning. Equality 7-2521 lives in this world and he is beginning to think there is something more. So therefore a conflict springs forth from what he is and what he is taught to be. Equality 7-2521 lives in a world that controls all. In this world you have no decisions to make because you arent given any. Everything is decided for you. Our hero, Equality 7-2521, wants to make his own decision. This is a sin. You arent allowed preference in his world. What our hero doesnt realize is that he is longing for freedom and individuality. In his world Equality 7-2521 is not an individual. No one is. Everyone is working for everyone else, in a group. This is our heros dilemma. He had such an urge to follow his free will that he strayed away from his job, that was chosen for him, and left to do his own work. He thought that if he worked for the common good that he would be given the job he wanted. This was not so because he did the work by himself. And anything done by one person must be evil. Our hero struggled to become what he was taught to be, but his own preference and free will took over. He was shunned for this and told he was evil just for believing he was different from everyone else. Once Equality 7-2521 leaves this world to be by himself, he begins to question the world he lives in. This is the first time he has dared question the world he was given. We all accept the world we live in. Equality 7-2521 is happy being by himself. He asks himself that if this is evil then what is good. He begins to realize the true nature of life. He realizes that being with other people all the time is only good if you choose to. He meets up with the woman he loves and cherishes every moment he spends alive. For the first time in his life he is happy to be alive. Before he always didnt care either way whether he was alive or dead. When he is at last introduced to the word I, he weeps. He lived his whole life with never knowing why he was alive and never believing he had a purpose. Our hero is an individual now and he knows it is not evil.

Domestic Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Domestic Terrorism - Essay Example In the movie, the Klans acts were terrorism. Terrorism means to cause terror. Burning crosses, throwing fire bombs into houses, and murdering civilians without a legal reason amounts to terrorism. The sole purpose of these acts were to drive fear into the Civil Rights activists and the African Americans in Mississippi. The reason for this terrorism was to force a frightened public, white or black, to accept Jim Crow laws in Mississippi. Compared to terrorism today, similarities can be seen. 9/11 was orchestrated by Osama bin Laden to cause fear in Americans by murdering civilians. Middle Eastern suicide bombers in Iraq, Israel, and Palestine kill civilians in an effort to scare the civilian population. These terrorists act to pressure civilians to pressure politicians to withdraw from territory, or other issues on their agenda. There is no difference from a terrorist today and a Ku Klux Klan member that acted in a terroristic way in the Civil Rights era. Terrorism is a crime, but there are differences in defining crime. For example, murder, extortion, kidnapping, and terrorism are crimes. Crime is an illegal activity. Terrorism is definitely a criminal activity. The reason the Civil Rights activist murders, fire burning, and the cross burning was terrorism is the Ku Klux Klans intention. Terrorisms goal is to create fear and panic. Sometimes it succeeds, or other times it has the opposite effect. The Ku Klux Klans terrorism in the Civil Rights era inspired resistance. I do not believe every Ku Klux Klan member was a terrorist. Only the ones who acted in a terroristic manner or committed a terroristic crime were terrorist. For example, Ku Klux Klan members who got together to speak on White Pride, burning crosses on their own property, or how much they hated African Americans are not committing crimes. As disgusting as it is, the First Amendment gives the right to free speech, even hate speech. Burning a cross on your

Racial Inequalities in the Criminal Justice System Essay

Racial Inequalities in the Criminal Justice System - Essay Example This essay discusses that the legal system of the United States favored the white part of the population from the very beginning. Indeed, originally all African slaves were not considered to be people in the full meaning of this word, but rather animate property that belonged to their masters. After they have been granted freedom, the governments of the states approved various laws that came to be known as Jim Crow laws which reinforced the segregation of races. Only the second half of the twentieth century witnessed the end of segregation. Prior to that time it often happened that Black citizens would be lynched and the police would not press any charges. As the study highlights the history of crimes committed and the sentencing handed down by judges has often been deemed racist. There is a question of the influx of police in poorer neighborhoods flooding the areas and arresting people for minor crimes. On a personal level, there is a staunch support for treatment for the mentally ill as opposed to incarceration. It was found that there is a number of â€Å"socioeconomic status variables (education, employment, public assistance, residential stability, and household composition)† that should be taken into account while considering the disparities in the legal system of the United States. As for the judicial system in general, it is rather obvious that there is a clear disproportion of judges that belong to different races.

Evidence Based Monthly Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Evidence Based Monthly Report - Essay Example The primary stakeholders of the program will be the students of Pine Ridge Middle School. Apparently noted, a huge figure of students is unable to use various facilities of Google in the context of education. Thus, we desire to improve the ability of the students towards using Google more efficiently. The other important stakeholders of the program will be the librarians and the teachers. The program will also help them to better manage the library resources and the procedure of information sharing. The program ‘Getting the Most out of Google’ will play an imperative role in enhancing the learning and literacy level of the students. Through this program, it is anticipated that students can access their required books or specific chapters of books within the campus. It is worth mentioning that ‘Getting the Most out of Google’ program will not only help the students in searching books, but will also prove to be quite useful for searching various images from the university library on varied subjects of interests (University of New England, â€Å"Getting the Most out of Google†). One of the key services of ‘Getting the Most out of Google’ program will be interlibrary services. Through this service, students can borrow books, articles and other educational resources provided by Pine Ridge Middle School. The other interlibrary service, which will be provided by the above discussed program include viewing articles as well as books easily. Students can always view variety of articles, books and educational resources that will certainly enhance their ability to learn and also literacy level at large. Furthermore, the students of Pine Ridge Middle School can also place request for a specific article. Apart from these, students can also have a discussion with the librarians regarding any information of books or reading materials. The interlibrary

Resume and Cover Letter Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Resume and Cover Letter - Assignment Example I have worked as a management assistant at Booz Allen Hamilton and the professional experiences gained, in conjunction with the theoretical framework continuously being developed at George Mason University (GMU) would be appropriately honed through your internship program. My previous work experiences assisted in developing teamwork and working in a collaborative and cohesive atmosphere. My responsibilities as management assistant in Booz Allen Hamilton required working effectively with diverse teams to specifically ensure that team members are duly motivated towards the accomplishment of identified organizational goals. My proposal for innovative performance evaluation programs that recognize and acknowledge exemplary performers using merit based standards assisted in achieving higher productivity, higher morale and job satisfaction. I likewise envision assisting in motivating teams within the Net Social environment. I have acknowledged the importance of completing my degree in Accounting at GMU to augment the professional skills gained at Booz Allen Hamilton, and to make me more competitive and competent in a global environment. Currently, support from the faculty and administrative staff at GMU assist in the development of more leadership skills, as well as in gaining more expertise in interpersonal communication, problem-solving, and decision-making skills. The multidisciplinary approach to learning enabled me to effectively share the knowledge, abilities, and skills gained during the course and assist in addressing unique and distinct team requirements at Net Social. Enclosed is a copy of my resume for your review. I would be genuinely interested to be part of the internship program. I likewise look forward to a mutually beneficial relationship. I could be reached at Telephone Number or Email Address. Thank you for your time and

Internet banking applications Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Internet banking applications - Research Paper Example According to the research as soon as technology bulged out from the conventional manual working trends, people who were tired of time consuming repetitive tasks obliged, and accepted it. That is the sole reason behind technology gaining sudden fame and it is only the charisma of technology that the power of mainframes is now present in handhelds. Such rapid advancement in technology was due to man’s eagerness and need of making things work on his fingertips. Technology, soon after its introduction in the markets and after the revelation of its endless benefits became a necessity for everyone. From MNCs to home users, technology is everywhere. The usage of technology of course is different with everyone but the truth is that it is used everywhere in some capacity or the other. Banking is one of the oldest businesses in the world. Since the evolution of human mind, human beings are constantly involved in making transactions and carrying out trade and business. Slowly but steadil y, the banking system also gained popularity and became popular. This meant that the clientele of each bank were increasing exponentially. Therefore, banking theories and studies became a crux part of finance and accounting curriculum. It was soon realized that banks should use the numeric computation and storage power of computers to enhance their business processes. This made competition stiffer and this is by virtue of this competition that value added services were introduced by banks. These value added services such as ATM’s and Internet Banking not only provided the banks competitive edge but also first mover advantage. This influx of technology not only introduced several different technologies at the workplace but also ensure that banks were making great sales as customers were willing to pay more for these value added services (Ghaziri, 1998). The term ‘Internet Banking’ was coined in 1980’s (Scholasticus, n.d.) but it’s no more a technical jargon these days as even basic customers who have very little knowledge of internet can use this technology to make financial transactions. This idea of doing online transactions got very modest reception when it was first launched primarily because of high internet costs and the vulnerability of such applications. The idea of virtual transactions didn’t appeal the conventional users but time proved them, otherwise. The aim of this dissertation is to do a threadbare analysis on internet banking applications that are currently in use in the industry. Some relevant questions that we will look to answer are: How actually these internet banking applications work? Are these applications really worth it? How these internet banking applications have evolved over the period of time and what extra features are now available in these applications? These questions will just act as the starting point of our research and will be answered comprehensively. Moreover, a peep into currently used architectures and applications themselves will also be a point of focus throughout our studies. 2. Objectives The objectives of this research are clearly elicited and they will help in providing a broader overview of the complete architecture that is normally being deployed in a bank. To calculate ROI generated because of this value added feature To perform trend analysis on different internet banking applications To determine different KPI’s that will help us analyze an internet banking application’s efficiency To study the general 3-tier architecture of a complete internet banking application To study factors that can further enhance an internet banking application To study peripheral applications that work with mainstream Internet Banking application To examine other channels that interact and study if they can work in line with the internet banking application To determine factors that can affect internet banking software’s performance 3. Background The forerunner of the modern times, Internet Banking was started as distance

Analyze the debate over currency wars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analyze the debate over currency wars - Essay Example The country most affected by China’s undervalued currency is the U.S. It is important to note that other countries such as the UK are also affected by China’s low exchange rate. Similarly, China is not the only country that pegs its exchange rate against the U.S dollar. Some Middle Eastern countries do the same (New York Times, 2010). Argument In 2003, while following this policy, China added about $10 billion to its reserves, having an overall surplus on its current account (Krugman, 2010). Although China made attempts to appreciate its currency in 2005 and 2008, the changes they made were not significant, nor did they satisfy other countries into believing that China’s minute appreciations would serve to reduce the threat it posed to their currency. In fact, China’s weak currency has been seen as a contribution to the slowdown in the global economy, mainly because China is a country that plays a significant role in the world economy. However, in this pap er, we will analyze the ongoing debate on such currency wars. Most countries, such as the U.S, argue that a currency that is valued lower than it actually should be brings many drawbacks to the competing country. Firstly, the fact that another country’s currency is valued lower makes their exports more competitive in the global market. We can see this example in the current world market as well, where China’s exports are cheaper for many countries around the world. But for countries that have a higher exchange rate, their exports remain uncompetitive in comparison, for example the U.S exports as compared to Chinese exports. Even more so, the low exchange rate of one country, makes importing expensive for them, hence discouraging them from importing from other countries. One country’s imports are another countries exports. This negative attitude toward importing from other countries renders the high valued exchange rate country, at a loss because it will be losin g out on exporting if no one is willing to buy. This is damaging to the industries located in such countries and could give rise to unemployment and hinder economic growth; the exact argument that the U.S. presents in light of China’s exchange rate. A country with a lower exchange rate, like China, could argue that its low exchange rate is to keep its domestic economy stable, where most of its population is employed in industries that thrive on exports. A step of revaluing the currency could prove to be very detrimental since it could lead to the closing down of many industries in the country. By increasing their exchange rate value, countries like China fear that they might face a fall in the demand for their exports. Furthermore, investment depends on the exchange rate vale. If a country revalues its currency to a significantly higher level, they may face a shortage of investment. This fall in demand, combined with a fall in investment may be detrimental for any economy, cr eating within high levels of unemployment and even slowing down the rate at which the country grows economically. These effects could not only affect the home country, but could leave an effect on the rest of the world, especially if most countries relied on the cheap exports of this country. But what really should be understood is that revaluing a currency

The role of the diversity of workplace play in china Dissertation

The role of the diversity of workplace play in china - Dissertation Example This research study analyzes diversity in the Chinese organizations and the role of diversity at the workplace. This research study identifies the benefits that the organizations can have by having diversity at the workplace. The researcher has used primary as well as secondary data to collect information regarding the topic under study. Primary data is collected using online questionnaire from different employees working in Chinese organizations. On the other hand, secondary data is collected from books, journal articles, and published papers. So, both primary and secondary data collection methods have helped the researcher in conducting a better research. 2. Introduction This research study focuses and analyzes the diversity of human resource in organizations and the role of diversity in the organizations particularly in Chinese organizations. The research study analyzes the overall situation at the workplace in different businesses in China in order to analyze how important busine sses consider diversity of human resource. ... The research study collects primary data from a number of employees that are working in China in order to analyze whether the organizations in China focuses on diversity in the workplace or not. 2.1. Background 2.1.1. Diversity Diversity in an organization has been defined as an organizational culture that does not have any kind of discrimination on the basis of the gender, age, language, employment, caste, disability, religion, culture, geographical background, and other discriminatory factors of the employees (Esty, 1995). 2.1.2. Equal Employment Opportunity Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 has been presented about discrimination of employees at the organizations. This federal law is aimed to protect the employees from discrimination at the workplace on the basis of religion, sex or national origin and other discriminatory factors. Equal employment opportunity (EEO) is defined as offering equal opportunities and equal treatment is given to all the employees in the organiza tion without any kind of hassle or discrimination. It has been found that diversity has become an important aspect today for businesses as organizations that have diverse employees are more innovative, creative, plan things better, manage their operations in a better way and several other benefits. Thus, considering the benefits of diversity in an organization, businesses have started focusing on having human resource that belongs from different backgrounds. 2.2. Aims and Objectives The aims and objectives of the research study are as follows: Do organizations in China focus on having diversity of human resource at the workplace? What is the role of diversity of workplace? What is the impact and benefits of diversity at the workplace in organizations in

Homosexuality in the Middle East Essay Example for Free

Homosexuality in the Middle East Essay Homosexuality lacks respect in the Middle East. It is considered to be an immense scandal. Nowadays, the idea of gay marriage is completely disregarded. They don’t display it on Arabic television. The media is controlled by the government, and hence they are not allowed to air or publish such ‘dishonors’. Therefore, most Arabs remain unaware and ignorant. There are undoubtedly many homosexuals in the Middle East who hope to get married. However, the chief problem is that it’s against the law. The Middle Eastern governments have placed rules and regulations against homosexuals. If they were to alter their rules, the Arab community may begin to accept the gay community. Furthermore, another chief problem is that the government is heavily influenced by religion. All prevalent religions do not approve of gay marriage. Hence, if marriage were to become civil, gay marriage might be permitted in the future. But in order for all these actions to take place, the Arab community must unite and try to make a change. Gay marriage should become an acknowledged concept in the Middle Eastern society. The Arab governments are one of the principal obstacles that are preventing gay marriage from happening. They decree many rules and regulations that are against homosexuals. One such example of these laws is Article 534 of the Lebanese Penal Code, a result of French colonialism, in consideration of diehard religious groups and sects. Article 534 states that: â€Å"sexual intercourse contrary to nature is punishable for up to 1 year in prison†. This article, in essence, deprives a large Lebanese demographic from partaking in ordinary civil life, and restricts their civil liberties. By restricting civil liberties, this so-called â€Å"law† prevents the democratic process from occurring smoothly for all citizens, and is an obvious black mark on the face of the supposedly â€Å"free† Lebanese democracy. This article also prevents Lebanese homosexuals from being properly integrated into society, and they therefore seek other Western societies, that are more open to homosexuality, and emigrate in search of a better life. Article 534 includes â€Å"the act of Sodomy, or any sexual intercourse between two men, which includes penetration†. The article, theoretically and legally, does not concern intercourse that does not include penetration, and does not include sexual acts between two women. The execution of this article has been scarce in modern day Lebanon, and so a conclusion can be made that it is used instead to prevent any debate on sexuality from occurring. One Helem article cites that â€Å"The association of unnatural acts with homosexuality contradicts modern scientific foundations, especially psychological and medical studies and research that removed homosexuality from the list of mental illnesses, something recognized by the World Health Organization on 17 May 1992, a date that was announced as ‘the international day against homophobia’. † (Helem) (Helem is the first LGBT organization in Lebanon). In Islam, homosexuals (called qaum Lut, the people of Lot) are condemned in the story of Lots people in the Quran (15:73; 26:165) and in the last address of the Prophet Muhammad. However, attraction of men to â€Å"beautiful male youths† has been a part of the culture of some Islamic societies and the attraction is not usually looked down upon in itself. When it comes to lesbian homosexuality, some have argued that since penetration is not involved, female homosexual acts should be less severely punished. Islamic law is most concerned with openly gay public behavior, so there is no strong disapproval of homosexuality if it is not displayed in public (Homosexuality, Oxford Concise Dictionary of World Religions. ) ‘Struggle for Gay Rights in the Middle East’ is an article that was written by Hala Gorani for CNN. One of the situations mentioned in the article is how the Egyptian police invaded a homosexual hangout on the river Nile called the Queen Boat. Some of the people who were involved in the hangout were arrested and imprisoned for sin. The article also notes that when governments raid homosexual gatherings, they do it for political instead of ethical reasons. Brian Whitaker, in his paper ‘Unspeakable Love: Gay and Lesbian Life in the Middle East’, argues that homophobia in Arab Muslim countries â€Å"is not a religious or a cultural issue, but is foremost a political problem of which culture and religion are reliant factors†, arguing that Homophobia in the Muslim world can be attributed to the attitude this world has to its counterpart, the modern secular European and Western civilization. Whitaker goes on to write that attitudes concerning homosexuality in the Middle East have become increasingly intertwined with politics on an international scale, stating that â€Å"claiming that homosexuality is anti-Islamic, or against the Arab ‘nature,’ has become a way to oppose Western policies†. The Muslim world views gay rights as a Western import, imposed on them by the changing world in view of globalization, and the stronger â€Å"imperialist forces†. But, even if the government were to change its laws concerning the issue of homosexuality, the people’s view on the subject might not change at all. Since the conservative citizen’s view on the issue is so deeply rooted in his beliefs already, it wouldn’t matter to him/her if the government changed a few rules and stuck some new wording in the Penal Code. They would still think the same thing, and say the same hateful things. Another major difficulty is the social rejection of gays in the modern Arab society. Most Arab people disregard and disrespect homosexuals. A recent article in BBC news written by John Muir called ‘Iraqi gay men face ‘lives in hell’ describes how a young boy was caught wearing women’s underwear. Men poked the boy with sticks and interrogated him, asking why he was dressed in such a manner. The boy frightfully explained that he was trying to aid his family’s monetary situation. Another event that was mentioned in Muir’s article was harassment. Homosexual Iraqi men were often harassed and brutally murdered for being what they were. Several dead men were found lying near placards with the terms ‘puppies’ and ‘perverts’ written on them. Another article called ‘People Think it’s a Mental Illness’, published in The Guardian, by Brian Whitaker accounts his travels around the Middle East, where he interviewed many homosexuals. One of the people he interviewed told him that his brother actually threatened him at gunpoint when his homosexuality was discovered. Article 534 of the Lebanese Penal Code, mentioned earlier, is used as Blackmail in Lebanon. One BBC article, in an interview with Helem’s co-ordinator George Azzi states that The authorities use this article to blackmail homosexuals by asking for money or using violence or insults, all the while knowing that it will cost them nothing at all to do so. The article also states that many gay men have lost their jobs after being uncovered as gay, and they suffer from verbal and physical abuse and degradation (especially in the case of more effeminate gay men). This hardship also exists within the family, where a majority of gay men have been threatened with murder and are kicked out of their houses. The article goes on to say that if a gay man or woman were to be a doctor or lawyer, he/she would be in a very tough situation, where people would lose f aith in their ability to treat them or give them legal advice. The only for the gay Arab community to escape social judgement is simply by keeping themselves in the closet, and restricting their beliefs only to themselves, in order not to get caught. This repression of attitude would definitely lead to major psychological and social problems for Arab homosexuals, most notably depression and social isolation from one’s social group, in order not to be judged or criticised for who he/she is. The gay individual may also start to feel denial because of his/her sexual orientation, and would start considering suicide as an easy way out. All these factors would not work well for the gay community, and would therefore lead to its downfall, and then the government would have won. Another important issue that needs to be tackled in the idea of civil marriage in the Middle East; traditionally, marriages are conducted by a Priest or a Sheik, with no regard to inter-religious marriages (sort of like a religion caste system). People of different religious backgrounds who want to get married usually travel to European countries, where civil marriages are conducted routinely, in order to obtain a legal marriage license and elope. Civil marriage has not been recognized in many, if not all, Arab countries, and multi-sectarian Arab governments steadfastly oppose the idea of legalizing civil marriage, where the idea of civil marriage takes â€Å"God† out of the sacred bond between man and woman. Since civil marriage is illegal in these countries, so is marriage between homosexual members of society, as they cannot get married in a church of mosque (even though some priests who are open to the idea may officiate gay marriages inside their respective churches, but the marriage would still go unnoticed by the government). Both the former Lebanese Minister of Interior Affairs and the current Maronite Patriarch (surprisingly enough) have voiced their opinions on being with the idea of civil marriage in Lebanon, but no action to pass a law concerning this issue has taken place as of yet. If civil marriages are legalized in these countries, then same-sex partners have the right, and the choice, to get married if they wanted to. In one Guardian article, entitled ‘What’s wrong with being gay and Muslim? , Brian Whitaker talks about how many Arab same-sex couples, or same-sex couples of Muslim descent in Britain are looking to civil marriage there in order to have a legal binding marriage contract. Whitaker gives one such example, writing that â€Å"two lesbians arrived at their local register office to tie the knot, both were Muslims and both were wearing hijabs†; saying that that was the first Muslim gay marriage to take place in England. The question still remains, if civil marriage we re to become legal at some point in the future, would Arab same-sex couples still want to tie the knot locally? They would remain afraid and weary of the repercussions that might result as a product of their marriage, and of the backlash of the conservative religious communities in these countries, and would probably not consider local Arab civil marriage a good solution, and would travel abroad anyway. In closing, the issue of homosexuality in the Middle East is still a taboo topic, regardless of the winds of change that might be sweeping part of the region. The point is they have still not had their effect on the region as a whole. The question of homophobia in these areas should be answered, is it one of culture and rejecting diversity, or is it a question of rejecting foreign politics and holding a united front against the western world? In any case, homophobia should not even still be a phenomenon of our 21st century civilization, whether locally or abroad. It is mainly a discussion on racism in general, and racism as a whole should have been abolished a long while ago. One day, the Middle Eastern governments will alter their challenging policies and people will begin to understand how ordinary gay marriage is. People should not feel troubled to be exposed and generate awareness to others around them. The face of the Middle East should case to be the face of extremism and terrorism, and should start being the face of a shining beacon of revolution and change, and especially of tolerance and unity. Marriage is first and foremost based on love, so why deny same-sex couples their right to love?

Review Of Cruise Tourism And Malaysia Tourism Essay

Review Of Cruise Tourism And Malaysia Tourism Essay Cruise Tourism is one of the major growth areas of world tourism Peisley, 1992; Hobson, 1993; Cruise Lines International Association, 1995. According to the Economist Intelligence Unit: There seems little doubt that, by the turn of the century, cruising will be firmly established as one of the worlds major tourism industries with significant markets in North America, the UK, Europe and Asia. The total number of annual passengers will have reached 8 million plus Cruising is the fastest-growing sector of the international holiday scene (The Passenger Shipping Association, 2003). Cruise tourism can be defined as the use of ships for pleasure cruising and not merely for transportation (UNWTO, 1997). Ocean and coastal cruise tourism is unique in the manner in which it provides a combination of transportation, accommodation, entertainment, retail and destination services. Cruise liners can be regarded as floating resort facilities, which have the major advantage of seasonal repositioning. From its predominantly Caribbean base, cruise tourism has spread across the world, increasing ports of call in all regions. As well as this, river and canal cruising has grown rapidly, particularly in Europe and China. The cruise industry is growing, expanding and accessing new markets by, in part, bringing into reach a diversity of popular and successful destinations that are new for cruise tourism, by exploiting previously under-utilised ports (Younger, 2003). 2.1.1 The cruise industry The growth of the cruise market throughout the world, and perhaps more notably in the United Kingdom (UK) has been one of the most remarkable phenomena of the 1990s (Wild Dearing, 2000). The cruise industry is the fastest growing segment of the travel industry achieving more than 2,100 percent growth since 1970, when an estimated 500,000 people took a cruise. Industry estimates are that 13.5 million people took a cruise vacation in 2009, with a total of 14.3 million passengers forecasted to sail in 2010. (Cruise Lines International Association [CLIA], 2010). In early 2001, 64 new and larger capacity ships were in production, expanding passenger capacities by 35%. More than 50% of these ships are dedicated to the United States tourism market and are now operating throughout the Caribbean (Sparrow, 2004). The cruise industrys growth is also reflected in its expanding guest capacity. Nearly 40 new ships were built in the 1980s and during the 1990s, nearly 80 new ships debuted. By the end of 2009, over 100 new ships were introduced since 2000, with 12 new vessels on the way for 2010. (CLIA, 2010) These new vessels carry more passengers, more crew, generate more waste and consume more goods and services. 2.2 Theoretical Framework According to Weaver and Oppermann (2000), tourism is a complex phenomenon involving many actors and interactive factors. Some of the actors are tourists, tour operators, cruise lines and airlines. To be able to understand the complicated nature of the tourism industry, a system based approach is suitable. Leipers tourism model can be used as the theoretical framework as it views tourism as a form of a system in which there is an operational structure built up of interacting components. Leiper who was an early supporter of the adoption of a systems approach towards understanding tourism defined tourism as: . . . the system involving the discretionary travel and temporary stay of persons away from their usual place of residence for one or more nights, excepting tours made for the primary purpose of earning remuneration from points en route. The elements of the system are tourists, generating regions, transit routes, destination regions and a tourist industry. These five elements are arranged in spatial and functional connections. Having the characteristics of an open system, the organisation of five elements operates within broader environments: physical, cultural, social, economic, political, technological with which it interacts. The components of the tourism system are shown in the model below (fig 1.1). This whole tourism system approach helps to organise our knowledge about tourism and its relationship with cruises. Leipers approach was to try and understand destinations, generating areas, transit zones, the environment and flows within the context of a wider tourism system rather than seeing them as separate independent entities. In the model there are three interactive components: (i) the tourism generating region, (ii) the destination region and (iii) transit routes which link the two regions. It is evident that transport forms an integral part of the tourism system by linking the tourist generating and destination regions together. Collier (1994) classifies tourism transport on several bases (e.g. public or private sector transport, water/land/air transport; domestic and international transport and mode of transport). Cruise tourism is considered as a system in which cruisers and operators are major actors. The tourism-generating region and the destination region are linked together through cruising which is also a tourism product. This makes cruise ships a unique form of tourism transport. People go on a cruise more than they go to a place. And yet their major competition is not other forms of transport but real places. As Morrison et al. (1996: 15) put it: Instead of competing with the airlines, the cruise lines have become their partners and now compete with destinations, resorts, and other vacation alternatives. The cruise ship itself has become a floating resort providing the maximum possible leisure and entertainment facilities. However Leipers model has been criticized for being simplistic (Prosser, 1998). Prosser provided a more detailed model that, he claimed, represents more effectively the inner complexities of the tourism environment. 2.3 SWOT analysis for Mauritius SWOT is an acronym where the letters stand for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. It is a commonly used analytical tool in business environments that has become firmly established in the literature of strategic management (Evans, et al. 2003). A SWOT analysis is a useful way of assessing the situation that a destination faces in its effort to develop cruise tourism. . According to Weihrich (1982), the SWOT analysis is the process of analysing organisations and their environments based on their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. This includes the environmental analysis, the process of scanning the business environment for threats and opportunities, which is considered as external factors, and the organisational analysis, the process of analysing a firms strengths and weaknesses as internal factors. Internal factors Strengths Weaknesses A strategically located port in the Indian Ocean Capacity and Infrastructure constraints- too few berths Safe and wonderful tourism destination Cyclonic period during the months of November to May Pleasant climate practically whole year round Nautical constraints- For many big cruise vessels at the same time Variety of land-based and water-based attractions Poor maintenance of beaches and attractions A great variety of cultures Low awareness in the market about cruise tourism in Mauritius Relatively good basic structures(hospitals, roads) and a good transport system Mauritius considered as an expensive destination and not within the reach of many World class quality services by Tour Operators, Hotels, Restaurants, and Travel Agents. Poor service at the port and untrained staff Minimum formalities on arrival of cruise vessels Poor road links to certain location and place of interest Lack of industry cohesion No strategic plan at MPA and MOT level External Factors Opportunities Threats Estimated two million tourists by the year 2015 Seasonality of the industry Brand name- Ile Maurice un plaisir Threats by terrorists and Somalian Pirates The cruise market Potential is strong for Regional/ International growth Competition from other exotic tourism destinations Improvement of physical infrastructure including adequate parking facilities at places of interest and other recreational areas Likely increase in oil prices affecting cost of travel Political stability of market of origin Economic uncertainty- late bookings and close-to-home cruises to avoid expense on flying Air network expansion facilitating Fly-cruise concept Strong growth of European demand (German, French and Spanish markets) 2.4 Sustainable development issues of cruise tourism: Although a relatively new phenomenon, tourism has become one of the worlds largest industries in recent years. According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO, 2004), sustainable tourism development meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. In 2008, International tourism arrival reached there were 922 million worldwide, with a growth of 1.9% as compared to 2007. (WTO) Given its total significance, it is not surprising that the tourism industry has a substantial environmental impact. In particular, tourism development is associated with environmental problems like deforestation, soil or beach erosion, and coral ecosystem destruction. Since tourism development also tends to result in rapid urbanization, it can contribute to such problems as increased air and water pollution, as well as inadequate solid waste management (Baver and Lynch 2006, 5). The scale and gravity of these impacts tend to be amplified in the Caribbean, where the environment comprises some of the most fragile ecosystems on earth, including beaches, coral reefs, and tropical forests (Lynch 2006, 158). When sustainable tourism has been applied to the industry, more emphasis has been given to tourisms effects upon the environment and economy, rather than to factors related to its effect on communities (Hardy et al, 2002: 491) Cruise tourism is currently going through a period of revival with new vessels being launched and sailing to ever more exotic places. Criticisms Hunter (1997) argues that different interpretations of sustainable tourism are appropriate urder different circumstances. The study of sustainable tourism should not be a rigid framework, but an adaptive paradigm which legitimizes a variety of approaches according to specific circtimstances (Htinter, 1997: 851).

Localization of Bran Functions: Research and Analysis

Localization of Bran Functions: Research and Analysis Adult brains show localized functions, for example with speech processes being concentrated in areas in the left hemisphere and with executive functions concentrated in the pre-frontal cortex. How does this organization come about? Is it because these functions are localized from birth? The functioning and processes of the brain is a very complex subject. Years of studies and experiments are yet to answer all the questions we have, although modern technology like brain imaging and MRI’s has come a long way to try to understand the way our brains work and their development. The matters we will be looking at is how the brain functions are organised, exploring localisation and the strengths and limitations to this, and could this localization have be set in shape from the birth of a human brain. To do this we will be focusing on modulization and innate modularity and the theories behind them. Cognitive development of the brain starts as a baby grows in the womb and the genetic makeup of the parents entwine and start to create a genetic blueprint. As there is a limited environment in the womb, the effect that environment will have on the baby will be limited. Because of this, the post-natal stage of brain development is probably the considered the more important of the two. The human brain does most of its advance development outside of the womb, only creating the basic connections and functions inside the womb. This can be seen using brain mapping of a baby at different stages of their infancy; as a neonate the baby as very few connections and as they get older, the dendritic trees of neurons can be seen extending creating much more connections. Huttenlocher (1990) reported a steady increase in the number of synapses in several regions of the cerebral cortex†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦in parts of the visual cortex, the generation of the synapses begins around the time of birth. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p. 122)From this we can see that there are limited functions and connectivity in the brain at birth and soon after birth these connectivities rapidly start to expand. So for these functions to be localised from birth would mean having all the right connections in place for this to be possible. So from this alone we can assume that these functions are localized through influence of their environment after birth and not set in place at birth. During the early stages of a babies postnatal brain development , the brain holds the ability of plasticity which allows change and adaption for diiferent parts of the brain. At this time plasticity limits the functions in the brain are not yet identified as this capability allows for various parts of the brain to take on diverse functions in cases of localized brain damage. As the child turn into n adult the brain becomes more set and let plastic and damage to the brain in this state is a lot harder to recover from. As the brain continues to mature, its neural pathways separate and functions localise, making it much harder to ‘transfer’ functions from one section of the brain to another. Parts of the brain are allocated with certain functions; language and speech is located predominantly in the left hemisphere and cognitive functions in pre-frontal cortex. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p. 123) Along with the separation of the neural pathways and brain development comes funct ional specialization. Lewkowitz and Turkewitz (1981) study in the early 1980s supported this claim. They showed that new-born babies visual preferences were significantly affected by previous auditory stimulus. Also studies by Meltzoff and Borton (1979) show that independent pathways in infants between 3 and 5 months of age are used to receive information from different senses. These processes of separating neural pathways to create a localized functioning of the brain are linked to selectionism which originates from Darwins theory of selection, in this case showing that the pathways that were ‘weaker’ or used less are eliminated and die off while those that are frequently use are strengthened in order to function a lot quicker. Although there is little understand and much speculation about this process. (Mareschal et al., 2004,p. 124-5) By dividing the brain into cognitive modules, this helps us to try to understand the structures and functions of the brain. There is a lot of speculation as to whether these do modules exist, they provide a basis for potential explanation of brain functioning. Scientists, Fodor and Karmiloff-Smith share very contrasting views and theories on brain functioning; although they both believe there are such things as cognitive module, they have conflicting views on how they are developed. Fodor (1983) had a nativist perpective and argued that modularity of the brain is ‘innate’. He believed that humans are born with the innate capacity to develop information processing systems that allow them to make sense of the world, in which they have evolved. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p.127) He believed that the brain has the ability to function in a particular way and the environment cannot affect this. This statement can easily be scrutinised as early we discussed that genes ‘always’ interact with their environment. Therefore, for the functioning of the brain to not be affected by the environment would me an that certain genes do not interact with their environment. Fodor claimed that this happened as a direct outcome of the evolution of our species. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p.127) One piece of evidence that is useful in showing a weakness in Fodor’s theory is that of Self-organization. The Self-organizing system is based on the ability of the brain to sort information into structures when in a particular environment. (Mareschal et al 2004, p.132), According to Keslo 1995, Johnson 1997 (cited in Mareschal et al 2004), Brain development at all of the stages requires a certain amount of self-organisation. Self-organisation is based on the theory of Hebb (1949) which claims that for localized functions to work at the same time and to create particular pathways, an important rule of repetition comes into play. The Hebb rule states that the connections created by neurons to transmit information are joined by its repeated use and so support the theory of selectionism. Karmiloff-Smith (1992) on the other hand, argues that cognitive modules created through development and the effect of environment interaction and stimulation. A strong indicator for Smith is the plasticity of the brain, that certains parts of the brain may take up the function of another part of the brain if needed at an early age, which challenges the nativist idea of innate local functioning. This debate between Fodor and Karmiloff-Smith is ongoing. Petersen et al. (1990) conducted an experiment using a PET machine, where they presented native and foreign speakers with English words. The test shown that particular parts of the cortex in native speakers responded to English words. This implies that the exposure to same the environment led to the development of a specific processing area in the cortex of their left hemisphere to process English language. This experiment supports the ‘modulization theory. (Mareschal et al., 2004, p. 130) While there is much complex data to consi der, there appears to be more evidence in favour of Karmiloff-Smith’s (1992) theory which is best demonstrated with experiments and studies carried out on the ability for children to learn language. Nativists like Chomsky (1965) claim that language is innate and supporting this claim further Pinker (1994) claims that pidgins and creoles are some of the evidence for this. His claim is drawn from the evidence which shows that children are able to create grammatically correct language though they never heard it being spoken before. Chomskys argument from the ‘poverty of the input suggesting that children can create a new language such as well formulated, never before heard question. He also claims that the brain has a special set of genes allowing language to develop in a particular cortical region. In contrast to Pinkers claim, the evidence from neuroscience and particularly the study carried out by Neville et al. (1998) illustrates that though in adulthood there are spec ialist cortical regions processing language, it wasn’t destined from birth that these functions were processed in these parts of the cortex. The experiment Neville et al. carried out with his participants, showed that in the deaf participants, the identical area of language processing was stimulated as in the hearing participants and in further still, a larger part of the right hemisphere was activated. Findings like this show that different parts of the brain can support language related information processing. (Mareschal et al., 2004p. 140) Reilly et al. (1998) provides further evidence. They conducted a study carried out on children with localized brain damage in the area of language processing. This occurred soon after or during birth. The study showed that while the learning ability of the children was not continuous but in fact varied, it presented a pattern of constant functional regaining of the damaged area, which were taken over by another area of the cortex. Anothe r study for adults revealed that localized lacerations causing specific loss of certain capabilities are mostly permanent. This suggests that in adulthood the plasticity of the brain reduces the functions cannot be relocated elsewhere. Johnson et al. (1996) study regarding the practical ability of pre-frontal cortex appears to support modularization. The study involving infants, revealed results suggesting that cognitive and behavioural development of infants is associated with the pre-frontal cortex especially when it comes to learning new abilities in initial stages of development. This demonstrates that the pre-frontal cortex activity is more general in early development and is able to take on other functions. Changes in these functions in the cortex are further focused and localized and the role of pre-frontal cortex reduces. It is very difficult to prove one theory as correct and the other as incorrect, as they both share areas that can be supported by some research or studies. Although a lot of evidence appears to be in favour of the modularization theory, there is a lot evidence that backs the innate modularity theory also. Both having strengths and weaknesses, but neither have enough evidence to completely contradict the other. In this case it would be safer to say that evidence shows that some functions are localized from birth, but have the potential to adapt if necessary while other functions appear to be unable to interchange and can only operate in there localized region. The reason for this appears to be circumstantial. Depending on factors such as age, damage, purpose, function and environment. It has been made know that not all functions are localized at birth and that there is much growth, development and connections made after birth that allows many areas of the brain to take part in one function and allowing the brain to expand and change. The evidence shown in this essay clearly shows that modularization is supported more than innate modularity. Even with the aid of current technology, scientists are still unable to stipulate which of the theories is the most accurate and the unending dispute is so yet to be settled. Word count: 1809 References Mareschal, D., Johnson, M. H . and Grayson A, (2004) Brain and cognitive development in Oates J. and Grayson A. (eds) Cognitive and Language Development in Children, Oxford, Blackwell/The Open University

King Lear Essay -- essays research papers

The Islamic Empires   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In early modern history, there were three major Islamic empires that became prominent. The Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, and the Mughals. We will descuss the Development of these empires by listing their similarities and differences, and their political, social and cultural backgrounds. Next, we will get into the three empires reign of power and also give a discription of some of the great leaders of these empires and their legacy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All of these Islamic Empires had Turkish ruling dynasties. The Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals came from nomadic, Turkish-speaking peoples of the central Asia who conquered the settled agricultural lands of Anatolia, Persia and India. All of these dynasties retained political and cultural traditions that their ancestors had adopted while leading their nomadic lives, but, they also adapted readily to the city-based agricultyural societies that they conquered. All of these empires also embraced Islam and derived its cultural guidance from Islamic values. Each empire expanded its territory under authority of their great leaders, such as Mehmed the Conqueror for the Ottomans, Shah Abbas the Great for the Safavids and the reigh of Aurangzeb of the Muhgal empire. In these empires, the prestige and authority of the dynasty derived from personal piety and military aptitude of the ruler and his ancestors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman Bey, founder of the dynasty that continued in unbroken succession from 1289 to 1923. the motives of Osman and his followers were to become ghazi, or Muslim religious warriors. â€Å"The Ghazi,(as the poet Ahmadi describes) is the instrument of religion of Allah, the sword of God, the protector and refuge of the believers.† It was believed that if to have died for the cause of your religion, you should not believe that the person is dead, but that he will live in beatitude with Allah and he has eternal life. The Ottomans waged a holy war which enabled them to expand their territory to the Anatolian city of Bursa, which became the capital of Ottoman principality. Under the reign of Mehmed the Conqueror, the Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453 and in turn lead to more Ottoman expansion. Mehmed presented himself as a true emperor and not just a warrior. He was ruler of two lands, Europe ... ...aged the elaboration of syncretic religion called the â€Å"devine faith† that focused attention on the emperor as a ruler common to all the religious, ethnic and social groups of India. The Mughal empire reached its greatest extent under Aurangzeb. During his long reign from 1659 to 1707, he waged a relentless campaign to push Mughal authority deep into southern India. Mughal came to rule the entire subcontinent except for a small region at the southern tip.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These are descriptions of the major empires that became prominent, the Ottoman Empire, the Safavids and the Mughals. We have gone over some of the similarities and differences of the three empires and also discussed the development of these empires and their social and political backgrounds. We have seen a glimpse of the great leaders that ruled these empires such as Mehmed the Conqueror, Shah Ismail and Shah Abbas for the Safavids, and Babur and Akbar for the Mughals. These empires created the boundary for Islamic institution through the 1500’s and beyond. They should be recognized as a stepping stone in the Islamic voyage which has definitely laid an impact on the society and societies before ours.

I Don’t Know What I Want to Do, but I Know that it has Nothing to Do wi

I Don’t Know What I Want to Do, but I Know that it has Nothing to Do with Medical School Ihave had three majors since I have been in college. Chemistry was my entering major, which I kept all of one semester. The one I kept the longest is math, which I had for three semesters. Now I am an anthropology major. This is my first semester with this major. In fact, I haven’t officially changed the major yet. In order to understand where I am in my life now, you must realize where I have been. In high school I was in the National Honors Society, I took AP classes, and was completely controlled by my family. They had put the idea in my head that money made people happy. I had to make a lot of it. I was pushed to decide what I wanted to do with my life early. To my family the obvious choice was for me to be a doctor. I went with it. All I wanted was for them to approve of me. My senior year I was taking AP physics and a chemistry course. I decided I liked chemistry, there was my major. It really didn’t matter what it was, I was pre-med., any science would do. Science? What was I thinking? I got to college and realized chemistry was not for me. I hated lab, the professors, for the most part, were mean, and I just didn’t want to be a doctor anymore. The slight separation that I had from my family made me realize I didn’t know what I wanted to do, but I knew that it was not medical school. Then came the freak out. What am I going to do with myself? Professional student sounded good to me. All I needed was something I could get good grades in without trying. Obviously math, since I never had to study for a math class in my life. I wasn’t just good at math, I WAS math. So I changed my major, thinking it was the best move ever. It... ...es, I want to travel, and I hate the nine to five lifestyle. My plan is to get my Ph.D. in archaeology and then become a college professor. I will dig in the summer and maybe teach a few field schools later on. Being a teacher is something I would like to do too. Now that I am in college I realize the best teachers are the ones that are a little bit crazy. I think that is so fitting for me. One of my professors now, Elise Brenner, is my idol. She is an archaeologist and a college professor. I learn so much in her class because she doesn’t do a straight lecture format, and she makes class enjoyable and memorable. I want to be to someone what she is to me, a role model. I may not have everything figured out yet, but I am on my way. I might not be rich a famous, but I will be happy. Someday you can visit me in my apartment in the city. That is, if I’m not in Africa. I Don’t Know What I Want to Do, but I Know that it has Nothing to Do wi I Don’t Know What I Want to Do, but I Know that it has Nothing to Do with Medical School Ihave had three majors since I have been in college. Chemistry was my entering major, which I kept all of one semester. The one I kept the longest is math, which I had for three semesters. Now I am an anthropology major. This is my first semester with this major. In fact, I haven’t officially changed the major yet. In order to understand where I am in my life now, you must realize where I have been. In high school I was in the National Honors Society, I took AP classes, and was completely controlled by my family. They had put the idea in my head that money made people happy. I had to make a lot of it. I was pushed to decide what I wanted to do with my life early. To my family the obvious choice was for me to be a doctor. I went with it. All I wanted was for them to approve of me. My senior year I was taking AP physics and a chemistry course. I decided I liked chemistry, there was my major. It really didn’t matter what it was, I was pre-med., any science would do. Science? What was I thinking? I got to college and realized chemistry was not for me. I hated lab, the professors, for the most part, were mean, and I just didn’t want to be a doctor anymore. The slight separation that I had from my family made me realize I didn’t know what I wanted to do, but I knew that it was not medical school. Then came the freak out. What am I going to do with myself? Professional student sounded good to me. All I needed was something I could get good grades in without trying. Obviously math, since I never had to study for a math class in my life. I wasn’t just good at math, I WAS math. So I changed my major, thinking it was the best move ever. It... ...es, I want to travel, and I hate the nine to five lifestyle. My plan is to get my Ph.D. in archaeology and then become a college professor. I will dig in the summer and maybe teach a few field schools later on. Being a teacher is something I would like to do too. Now that I am in college I realize the best teachers are the ones that are a little bit crazy. I think that is so fitting for me. One of my professors now, Elise Brenner, is my idol. She is an archaeologist and a college professor. I learn so much in her class because she doesn’t do a straight lecture format, and she makes class enjoyable and memorable. I want to be to someone what she is to me, a role model. I may not have everything figured out yet, but I am on my way. I might not be rich a famous, but I will be happy. Someday you can visit me in my apartment in the city. That is, if I’m not in Africa.

History of the internet :: essays research papers fc

History of the internet Introduction The Internet has revolutionized the computer and communications world like nothing before. The invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is a world-wide broadcasting capability, a mechanism for gathering information, and a medium for communication and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. The Internet represents one of the most successful examples of the benefits of sustained investment and commitment to research and development of information infrastructure. Beginning with the early research in packet switching, the government, industry and academia have been partners in evolving and deploying this exciting new technology. Today, the average person commonly uses terms like ‘mclennox@ilink.nis.za’ and ‘http://lennox.w3.to’. The Internet today is a widespread information infrastructure, the initial prototype of what is often called the National Information Infrastructure. Its history is complex and its influence reaches not only to the technical fields of computer communications but throughout society as we move toward increasing use of online tools to accomplish electronic commerce, information acquisition, and community operations. The Initial Internet Concepts The original ARPANET grew into the Internet. Internet was based on the idea that there would be multiple independent networks, beginning with the ARPANET as the pioneering packet switching network, but soon to include packet satellite networks, ground-based packet radio networks and other networks. In this approach, the choice of any individual network technology was not dictated by a particular network architecture but rather could be selected freely by a provider and made to interwork with the other networks. Up until that time there was only one general method for federating networks. This was the traditional circuit switching method where networks would interconnect at the circuit level, passing individual bits on a synchronous basis along a portion of an end-to-end circuit between a pair of end locations. Kleinrock had shown in 1961 that packet switching was a more efficient switching method. Along with packet switching, special purpose interconnection arrangements between netwo rks were another possibility. While there were other limited ways to interconnect different networks, they required that one be used as a component of the other. In an open-architecture network, the individual networks may be separately designed and developed and each may have its own unique interface which it may offer to users and other Internet providers. Each network can be designed in accordance with the specific environment and user requirements of that network.

Coursework on multicultural management

Cross cultural training as one of the greatest managerial challenges of globalization is the heart of human resources management in the public sector. The author’s main advocacy is that of encouraging the public leaders to â€Å"assume the responsibility for creating new models of management systems† (Hill, Charles 2004). As an effective answer to the challenges of globalization, the author believes that the world is in need of training and educating globally competitive Human Resources professionals and that the government must do its part by financially supporting such immediate needs. It is the global competition that gave way to the increasing cultural diversity in companies and in the public sector. The focus of modern and globally competitive management strategy should then focus on its culturally diversified human resources.In this article, the author raised several vital questions in relation to human resources management in the global and multicultural environm ent. First the author asked how executives can develop a multicultural management group. Secondly the author wanted to explore the role of human resources in the management of negotiations and international collaboration. Lastly, the author dug on the ways of developing cross-cultural competencies.According to the author, a globally competitive agency must seriously consider the concept of trans-nationalism by creating and maintaining â€Å"multifaceted organizational cultures† (Bartlet and Ghoshal 1992 cited in Hill 2004). Global leaders are required to cope with cultural relativity and part of that step is to carry out cultural awareness training (Bochner, 1992 cited in Hill 2004). That awareness training must include an understanding of the country’s national culture and how its people think. A management specialist asserts that â€Å"Cultural differences significantly influence management approaches and the performance of employees within organizations† (Hof stede, 1989).A globally competitive leader must first learn the techniques of global negotiations which requires an awareness and understanding of the multicultural facets of the negotiation process. This skill however according to the author needs to be learned and practiced overtime. In the case of a globally competitive public manager, one has to develop the essential characteristics of a global leader. These characteristics according to Hill involve a global mindset, global leadership skills, and ability to lead cross-cultural teams, energy and talent to participate in global networking, and skills as a global change agent.In the context of public administration in education, the author recommends that a global leader must incorporate faculty development and exchange and team building for its members. A globally competitive public administration should also develop and maintain cultural exposure and a public-centered, multi-lingual work environment in addition to textbook and ca se study development.The concept of the globalization of human resources management is a vital aspect of any organization that must be placed immediate attention. Since globalization require the interaction of organizations in the international arena, it is important that its leaders and members should be able to develop cultural sensitivity. Global competition opens opportunity for people of different cultures to come together to negotiate, build business relationships and maintain a culturally diversified working environment. Human resources management therefore plays vital role in securing that each organization is recruiting and training globally competitive and culturally sensitive leaders.ARTICLE II. Multinational enterprises, employment relations and ethicsApart from cultural sensitivity, globalization also poses challenges to employment relations and ethical perspectives of globally competitive organizations. This article specifically addresses the issues concerning business ethics like child labor, work environment safety and work pay rates. Ethics, although seen in different perspectives and in some relations with values, is a concept that is still considered a relative term in the business arena. In this article ethics has been discussed in comparison and in contrast with the concept of law.The author questions how can business leader gauge if business rules, practices and values can considered ethical? The author also explored the concept of universal approval as a benchmark in drafting an organization’s statement of values and ethical standards. Because values are relative, the acceptability of practices depends on the existing cultural norms in a certain society. â€Å"Values are always matters of taste or whim, and cannot be proved to be true, or valid for all time in all places, their nature and consequences can be identified† (Donaldson, John 2001). On this ground, ethical standards are always debatable.Still human resources are the main concern of this article since all organizations are composed and run by people. Globally competitive enterprises must therefore focus on critical analysis of the values and ethical standards they attempt to implement especially with the presence of cultural diversity. The author in this regard assessed that judgment of business ethics cannot be based upon legal structures rather on the culturally acceptable standards of the country on which an enterprise operates.In the author’s view, ethical standards of each enterprise must look into some principles of employment conditions that would generally be considered acceptable for at the European community. First, an ethical work environment must give its members the freedom to move around the working community, provide equal opportunities for men and women, training and a high standard of health and safety protection at work. The author’s main point is that ethical standards of different work environments, especial ly that relates to cultural diversity, differ on situations and not on principles upon which such ethical standards are based upon. The bottom line of the author’s argument is that business codes of ethics do not suffice for an organization to become successful in its operation but still they are held important as they serve to inform its members of the values that the company is expected of them.At the least business ethics are vital elements of the organization’s operations in matters of decision-making and of forecasting and shaping its future. â€Å"The key to managerial ethics is the development of individuals so that, ideally, they will possess the moral attributes required for the apprehension, appreciation and handling of ethical issues and dilemmas† (Donaldson, 2001). Business ethics should not therefore serve as borderline for each member rather it must be drafted in a way that independent moral judgment of each member can still be practiced. The autho r’s question is that apart from the existing organizational ethical standards, what more should each globally-operating enterprise should need?Apart from addressing the issues of working environment safety, child labor and gender sensitivity, global organizations must balanced such principles with the value of strong self-belief. What the author therefore recommends is adapt economic and business pluralism. A personal opinion on this matter would lead to a conclusion that respect for each person’s identity and preferences should always be an important consideration. Although it has been established as some form of business rule that a company must operate according to the existing laws in the country where it operates, cultural diversity poses a great challenge for each organization to balance cultural norms, ethical standards and laws with human respect especially those who are operating with people of different colors.ARTICLE III. Diversity Management and Cultural Co mpetenceDreachslin is concerned about the importance of cultural diversity awareness and recognition of managers in a globally competitive organization. An awareness of one’s group identities according to the author â€Å"helps shape our world view and influence our cultural style, including what we value, how we behave, and what we believe† (Dreachslin, Janice 2007,p.79). It is one’s awareness of a cultural identity and preferences that help him define his way of interacting with such culture in reference to human respect. The author also finds the issue important because of the presence of human biases and preferences that create possible disagreements and thus conflicts in an organization which caters to the needs of people from different cultures and beliefs.Because globally operating organizations necessitates the employment of culturally diversified people, it is not surprising that disparities in the workforce arise evidently. This trend had been viewed b y two opposing advocates. On one side, some believe that cultural competence is as important as celebrating our differences. On the other hand, some believe that placing importance of such issue would only contribute to cultural conflicts. The question raised in the middle of the author’s discussion is on what is the better approach to diversity management- homogenization or customization?On the basis of healthcare industry, the two approaches were compared. In the author’s perspective, â€Å"homogenization is necessary to build common ground and unity of purpose in the context of diversity, without which strong performance is not possible† (ibid.). It is stressed in the article that identities, being an inevitable part of cultural diversity, maybe chosen individually and socially. In that sense, one’s actions towards his relationship or interaction with people of the same culture or that of the other culture are seriously affected because expectations or at least impressions are created from the start. Such impressions or expectations therefore define our ways of communicating with others. Homogenization tells us that a common ground can possibly be created on which both parties can meet or agree with.The other side of the coin, the concept of customization, necessitates the satisfaction of one’s need to express his uniqueness by expressing the values and characteristics we share with those of the same affiliations. Customization therefore advocates and encourages the display of individual cultural differences not for cultural identification but for the sake of human need and satisfaction. Both concepts have their own benefits and costs like all other concepts and ideas but management specialists like Donaldson recommend the employment of both but stressed that this be done in balance. Communication has been highly regarded as a vital tool in managing one’s own leadership style.In reducing cultural conflicts, leaders are required to utilize the communication tool efficiently and effectively. Donaldson suggests that leaders must ask themselves if their communication styles are required by their jobs or their styles were purely their personal preference. The answer would definitely go for the former proposition. Experts suggest that serious attention must be put on managing diversity in order to have a positive impact on employee performance. It is to be stressed that diversity in this context encompasses gender disparities or gender gaps. Kochan stressed that â€Å"diversity is both a labor-market imperative and social expectation/ value† (Kochan, et al. 2003, p.18).In the practice of managing diversity, it is important that leaders must not focus on pointing out cultural and gender differences. Globally competitive leaders are rather required to employ balanced management styles through efficient communication strategies. These can be his powerful tool in building an organizational cultur e and human resources practices that would generally be practical and applicable to its culturally diversified people. Despite the presence of obvious cultural and gender differences, global leaders must be able to develop the skills of training its employees to professionally practice respect by simply treating its people based on what is just and rightful and without prejudice to any party involved.REFERENCESC. A. Barlett, and S. Ghoshal (1992). What is a Global Manager? Harvard Business Review 70 (1992): 124-132.John Donaldson (2001). Multinational enterprises, employment relations and ethics. Employee Relations. Bradford: 2001. Vol. 23, Iss. 6; pg. 627, 16 pgsJanice L Dreachslin (2007). Diversity Management and Cultural Competence: Research, Practice, and the Business Case.Journal of Healthcare Management. Chicago: Mar/Apr 2007. Vol. 52, Iss. 2; pg. 79Geert Hofstede (1980). Cultures Consequences: International Differences in Work-related Values (Beverley Hills, CA: Sage, 1980, 1 984).Pan Suk Kim (1999). Globalization of human resource management: A cross-cultural perspective for the public sector. Public Personnel Management. Washington: Summer 1999. Vol. 28, Iss. 2; pg. 227Michael Porter (1990). The Competitive Advantage of Nations (London: Macmillan, 1990). 2 Oded Shenkar

Feeding Habits of the Grey Nurse Sharks and Cone Snails Essay

The Grey Nurse Sharks and Cone Snails are two distinct creatures that live in water. They may have the same habitat but the two organisms have different ways on how to nourish their respective systems. For the grey nurse sharks, they are considered as huge slow-moving migratory sharks who like to swim in warm-temperate waters. They are usually found in â€Å"shallow and sandy waters near the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans.† Even though this type of sharks prefer to do things alone, it has been observed that they prefer to do cooperative feeding with a small group of sharks by â€Å"congregating or nursing their prey into a compact school first before feeding together†(McGrouther, 2007). In the food chain, the grey nurse sharks are on top wherein they eat sea creatures that are smaller than their body size such as lobsters, squids, sting rays and others that they can easily sink their ragged teeth into (Cooper, 2009). Meanwhile, the cone snails have chemoreceptive cells which function as their sense organs for detecting their preys. They use different strategies to catch their prey particularly at night because they are nocturnal and venomous creatures. Usually, these snails would hide in order for their prey not to notice them. When the prey is within reach, they would extend their long venomous appendages and swallow their prey. For other types of cone snails, they would just open their mouth and let their prey catch the bait (Remigio and Duda, 2008). Their usual diet is composed of small fish, crabs and worms (Maris, 2006). Moreover, nurse grey sharks particularly the young ones can also become preys of other organisms. When the population of grey nurse grey sharks decrease, the number of sting ray increases. But grey nurse grey sharks have the capability to control the population of their preys reducing the extinction of some species. On the other hand, cone snails regulate the population of the mollusks and worms. When they reproduce, there is a high possibility that they can become â€Å"hosts to disease-causing microorganisms† which can work their way to the human body (Cooper, 2009). References Chivian, E. (2001). Environment and health: 7. Species loss and ecosystem disruption – the implications for human health. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 164, 1. Cooper, P. (2009). Sand Tiger Shark. Florida Museum of National History. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from www.flmnh.ufl.edu/ Marris, E. (2006). Drugs from the Deep. Nature Publishin, 443, 1. McGrouther. (2007). Grey Nurse Shark. Australian Museum Fish. Retrieved March 22, 2009, from www.austmus.gov.au/fishes/ Remigio, E.A. and Duda, T.F. (2008). Evolution of ecological specialization and venom of a predatory marine gastropod. Molecular Ecology 17, 1156-1162.

Merck Pharma Case Analysis

Jim Mesplie MBA 519 – Competitive Strategy Case Analysis #4 FACTS Beginning as a small scale manufacturer of chemical in the United States, Merck Research Labs (MRL) became the top notch research institution in the pharmaceutical industry by World War II. By attracting the top talent in chemistry, biology, and pharmacology, MRL emerged as the leader in human pharmaceuticals with the release of highly necessary drugs to treat infections, and tuberculosis. MRL focused their strengths on three key areas: vitamins, antibiotics, and hormones.With the best scientists in their industries, MRL developed a reputation of being the best and their profitability put them at the top of their own industry. By the 1970’s, pharmaceutical research had advanced dramatically and MRL expanded their leadership in the market by providing â€Å"breakthrough drugs to the market. † In doing so, MRL tripled their bottom line by the 1980’s and were continually one of the most valuabl e companies on an annual basis. MRL’s profitability was hard to match by their competitors along with their innovations in the human therapeutic drug market while maintaining a science-based business model.MRL biggest core strengths was not only maximizing their top-talent to produce profits and cutting-edge drugs to be sold on the open market, but being very disciplined in their drug development process. Every one of MRL’s competitors put their newly designed drugs thru the same development process as they do, but the difference is post-marketing clinical studies (Phase V) makes sure their products are positioned correctly and they are utmost effective to whoever consumes their products for medical reasons. ISSUESIn 1984, the pharmaceutical business world was shook up with the passing of the Hatch-Waxman Act which tore down a barrier that MRL had created with their innovations for other competitors to enter the market. This new law enacted allowed generic drugs to be manufactured which made a big hit to market share for MRL and other competitors in the pharmaceutical industry. Collaboration could be used with smaller companies to replicate drug patents that recently expired which meant smaller R&D was needed to make generic drugs and the timeline for MRL to have exclusivity was depleted.Another hit was a few years later when pricing restrictions were put in place hurting MRL and the industry even further. With the regulations and the FDA allowing businesses to advertise to potential consumers directly thru the mail, television, or print ads in the local newspaper, MRL had to re-think their own strategy and begin what the new CEO Ray Gilmartin called a â€Å"New Reality. † In his view, what made MRL the powerhouse in the past is not going to carry the company forward with the new business battlefield for market share.The belief that the product quality and effectiveness would be enough to justify a premium price in the open market would no t be a long-term solution for MRL since doctors and patients could get something very similar for a much cheaper price by using generic drugs. The biggest struggle for MRL currently is whether they could adapt to the new changes while maintaining their core values as being a â€Å"science-led† or based company. Mr.Gilmartin felt the biggest obstacle for the company was bringing drugs to the new market while still using their larger research department while other competitors are focusing more on a larger sales force to bring their drugs to market. CONCLUSION/ANALYSIS MRL and Mr. Gilmartin still struggle with adapting to the new market and it is obvious that Mr. Gilmartin isn’t quite sold on what the organization has done to be effective with selling their drugs in the market.While not adapting to the drug industry changes, MRL is not leveraging external opportunities with other organizations like their competitors have along with not capitalizing on direct to consumer marketing with a minimal sales force. Now MRL should not forget what made them great by maintaining a top-tiered research staff, but it would be ideal for them start putting more money into other critical stages of the drug development process. As you can see in Exhibit 2, MRL’s puts 60% of their R&D expenditures in the target & clinical phases of the drug development process.Now this helped them become a market leader in product differentiation and quality but today’s competitors are focusing more on phases III and IV to help drugs hit the market with a bigger impact. I feel MRL is on the path to change while adapting new strategies in response to the new market. However the bureaucracy that was created in doing so has inhibited this response to a minimal roar. All these extra teams that Mr. Gilmartin and MRL have created to figure out how to re-gain their market share have slowed down the progress that was intended. I suggest that Mr.Gilmartin keep with his somewhat flat leadership organization but invest more time in working with marketing department to create drugs that are needed in the market place. I feel utilizing the marketing department’s expertise and forecast of what the market will demand will help MRL develop drugs that can be sold in the market from the beginning will alleviate any wasted efforts for the company in those first few critical and expensive stages of drug development. In doing so, costs will be reduced and profits will be reflective of those efforts which would put them back down the same path that made MRL great in the first place.

Cyber Security: Threats, Response and Improvement

Cyberspace, or the Internet as an interchangeable reference, is the electronic medium of computer networks and systems in which online communication and enterprise takes place. Originally, the Internet served to interconnect laboratories engaged in government research. However, since 1994, the decentralized Internet has expanded to serve millions of users and a multitude of purposes in all parts of the world. With this shift from government tool to general tool, the Internet has become a collective result of ideas, beliefs and initiatives. Many aspects of our day-to-day lives can be traced along the Internet through some form of electronic function. In addition to its wide reaching powers with regards to the spread of information, the Internet has also become the most democratic and universal form of mass media ever known, since no one entity has a monopoly over the information available, thus making control close to impossible. Clearly, Internet usage in today’s world is no longer viewed as a nonessential luxury. Usage and content has exponentially risen to a level of unprecedented proportion that requires its own area of precautions and supervision. The distal range of context that Cyberspace commands is the basis for a host of security issues and challenges that anyone that utilizes the Internet is made aware of daily. There is a growing awareness in today’s globalized world of the imminent dangers that may befell anyone that isn’t careful of their Internet usage. Cybercrimes such as theft, fraud and identify theft, to name a few, pose as ominous threats to the security of any individual or enterprise that engages the Internet at any given time. Read this  Chapter 2 – Why Security is Needed Not only are these threats that individuals are subjected to, but also threats that the US government has been forced to acknowledge as it becomes increasingly dependent on the internet as a way of life. Based on the combination of the new widespread use of the internet, as well as governments and world’s dependence on the internet for daily life, cyber security has become the new face to American foreign policy, national security, military and defense strategies and economic stability. As President Obama explained, the growing number of attacks on our cyber networks has become â€Å"one of the most serious economic and national security threats our nation faces. † This increased threat explains the increase in the cyber security field, task force work, watchdog groups and government agencies over the past decade. â€Å"Cyber security,† as the field has been coined, is varied and ranges from the local, state and federal levels, all with the purpose of regulating and policing the ill effects of Cyberspace usage. Responding to Threats. The increase of security threats has forced the United States government to meet these new challenges and implement strategies towards the safeguarding and integrity of its critical infrastructures, as well as against an extensive gamut of state and non-state actors that do not adhere to physical borders. The United States government is responsible for the supervisory control and data acquisitions (SCADA) of the entire nation. SCADA has seen a growing dependence of critical infrastructures and industrial automation on interconnected physical and cyber based control systems. There has been a growing and previously unforeseen cyber security threat to these systems, which include industrial control systems, computer systems that monitor and control industrial, infrastructure, or facility-based processes. These critical infrastructures include areas such as water treatment and distribution plants, wastewater collection and treatment plants, oil and gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and distribution generators, wind farms, civil defense siren systems and large communication systems. Although most critical infrastructures are in the private sector, governments at various levels perform many key functions with regard to these infrastructures. Among those key functions are national defense, homeland security, emergency response, taxation, remittances to citizens, central bank activities, criminal justice, and public health. These functions and others now depend upon information networks and systems. Thus, it is the duty of the government by law to secure their information systems in order to provide essential services that is critical to the continuity of government. Government’s role in cyber security is warranted in cases where high transaction costs or legal barriers lead to significant coordination problems; cases in which governments operate in the absence of private sector forces; resolution of incentive problems that lead to under provisioning of critical shared resources; and raising awareness. †7 Policy Review Current cyber security policy has been adjusted to reflect the clear and present danger associated with cyber warfare. The Obama Administration has identified several areas in which cyber security will be greatly impacted. Its near term strategy, which in effect is the Administration’s immediate focus, is the most vigorous strategy, and includes the listing and identification of the designation of a cyber security directorate, establishes cyber security as a management priority, proposes a cyber security action plan that develops a framework for research and development strategies that focus on game-changing technologies that have the potential to enhance the security, reliability, resilience, and trustworthiness of digital infrastructure. The strategy also strives to provide the research community access to event data to facilitate developing tools, testing theories, and identifying workable solutions. 7 Cyber security and its safeguarding of critical infrastructure as we know it today came to pass The Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P. L. 107-296), which transferred and integrated several federal entities that play a role in cyber-security of control systems into the Department of Homeland Security. These entities include the Critical Infrastructure Assurance Office, the National Infrastructure Protection Center, the National Infrastructure Simulation and Analysis Center, and parts of the Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Assurance. Additionally, the Homeland Security Act of 2002 created a new class of information, critical infrastructure information, which can be withheld from the public by the federal government. In spite of the clandestine measures in place to ensure the integrity of privileged information, the cornerstone of America’s cyberspace security strategy is and will remain a public-private partnership. The government, working with key stakeholders, should design an effective mechanism to achieve a true common operating picture that integrates information from the government and the private sector and serves as the basis for informed and prioritized vulnerability mitigation efforts and incident response decisions. From a federal government perspective, the proper and most efficient approach to ensuring the safety and integrity of its cyber security is through rigorous and cost-effective risk assessments. Industry Initiatives Since the field of cyber-security is a relatively new one, it will continue to experience its share of technical difficulties along the way. Initiatives that address the vulnerability of industrial control systems may be reduced and enhanced in a ‘less is more’ approach through a range of federal actions. Development standards by either a voluntary or mandatory process for cyber-security of control systems; identifying and addressing critical infrastructure interdependencies; developing encryption methods for control systems; identifying and establishing technologies to address existing vulnerabilities; funding long-term research into secure SCADA systems; providing for free exchange of risk information between the federal government, private industry, and other critical infrastructure sectors; and assessing federal activities in this area are all possibilities for negotiation. Due to the severity of importance surrounding SCADA systems, federal actions may also create a more uniform process that would include â€Å"the functionality necessary to protect industrial control systems, while providing for more secure operation. † Preparedness and Resources America’s increasing dependence on information technology has given way towards a greater protection of digital networks and infrastructures, however confidence in its current form is as delicate as ever despite renewed calls for better understanding, awareness and preparedness of critical infrastructures. â€Å"Confidence in preparedness is variable. Nearly a third of IT executives surveyed said their own sector was either â€Å"not at all prepared† or â€Å"not very prepared† to deal with attacks or infiltration by high-level adversaries. Among those who had actually experience such attacks, the lack of confidence rises to 41 percent. † It is a generally held view by the cyber security community that the resources in place to secure networks are in adequate measure to respond to at-large threats. Overall, cost was most frequently cited as â€Å"the biggest obstacle to ensuring the security of critical networks,† followed by â€Å"lack of awareness of the extent of the risk. Such a daunting task of safeguarding these important resources can only be handled at the federal level, particularly in the military’s domain, yet even the federal government isn’t impervious to data breaches, nor is the military. The man currently responsible for overseeing US cyber security strategy is Deputy Defen se Secretary of Defense William J. Lynn of US Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM). Secretary Lynn cites the biggest threat to American cyberspace stems from the â€Å"exploitation, disruption and destruction of our networks. In 2008, the US was the victim of a cyber attack that penetrated top-secret classified files. The breach occurred when a foreign intelligence agent used a malicious flash drive to steal information from laptops in Iraq and Afghanistan. Lynn cites this unprecedented event as â€Å"the most significant breach of U. S. military computers ever. †13 More recently in May of 2010, the US Secret Internet Protocol Router Network (SIPRNet) was breached by PFC Bradley Manning, which led to the highly publicized Wiki Leaks controversy. USCYBERCOM will play the leading role in helping to integrate cyber operations into operational and contingency planning as outlined by the 2010 Cyberspace Policy Review and the Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR). According to the Cyberspace Policy Review, â€Å"[t] he nation’s approach to cyber security over the past 15 years has failed to keep pace with the threat. † The QDR acknowledges that: There is no exaggerating our dependence on DoD’s information networks for command and control of our forces, the intelligence and logistics on which they depend, and the weapons technologies we develop and field. In the 21st century, modern armed forces simply cannot conduct high-tempo, effective operations without resilient, reliable information and communication networks and assured access to cyberspace. It is therefore not surprising that DoD’s information networks have become targets for adversaries who seek to blunt U. S. military operations. Indeed, these networks are infiltrated daily by a myriad of sources, ranging from small groups of individuals to some of the largest countries in the world. The reality facing governments and private enterprise today with relation to yber attacks is to maintain a steadfast and cautious plan whose efficacy enables them to respond to the incessant attacks by hostile governments and non-state actors alike. Undoubtedly, these measures are costly, but a solid investment in the safeguarding of critical infrastructure and data. The alternative lies in damage control once an attack has been initiated, which when compared to an attack, is exponentially less than the warranted protection in aggregate. The average estimated cost of 24 hours of down time from a major cyber attack was U. S. $6. 3 million in 2010. 6 According to a study prepared by the Poneman Institute, a research center dedicated to privacy, data protection and information security policy, the smaller the gap between compliance and non-compliance costs, the lower the occurrence of compromised records for an organization. 17 According to Undersecretary of Defense Lynn, â€Å"cyber attacks on our military networks have not cost any lives, not yet. But in a six month period, the Defense Department spent more than $100 million defending its networks †¦ and we spend billions annually in a proactive effort to defend our network s. †18 Future Action Plans The interdependence of cyberspace means system networks are heavily dependent on varying infrastructures in order to function at optimum capacity. The US Department of Defense has acknowledged that in order to meet the demands of today’s cyber security threats, they must collaborate with private enterprise in order to coordinate responses to cyber attacks. The Cyber Policy Review states that, â€Å"implementation of this framework will require developing reporting thresholds, adaptable response and recovery plans, and the necessary coordination, information sharing, and incident reporting mechanisms needed for those plans to succeed. Moreover, the QDR supports the Cyber Policy Review by stating that, â€Å"this mutual assistance includes information sharing, support for law enforcement, defense support to civil authorities, and homeland defense. In particular, DoD will strengthen its cooperation with DHS, which leads the national effort to protect federal information systems. †19 Collaborative Effort and Hierarchy While cyber security is currently evolving and become a growing trend in the digital age with relation to national, military and economic security, overnment-sponsored cyber security cooperation varies widely among owners and operators of critical infrastructure in their respective arenas. 20 The advent of globalization has spawned a new age of interdependence and the integration of markets, nation-states and technologies. 21 While there is no question as to the federal government’s responsibility in pooling its resources together for its own security, the question remains insofar as to ho w the US’ allies and partners will collaborate in areas of mutual interest with relation to cyber security. As with any other venture that requires circumspection, the tendency for information sharing not only at the federal level, but international level as well may very well be a one-way street; from bottom, up. While U. S. cyber security policy aims at having a partnership with private enterprise, resistance from the private sector arises from an impending gamut of legislation and regulation. Three areas in particular are a concern for IT professionals: * Lack of faith in the understanding officials have about the way a sector works. Clumsy regulation may â€Å"level-down† security in very diverse sectors. * The risk that mandatory disclosure of security incidents—for example the compromise of personal data—can drive policy and resources in counter-productive directions. 22 These concerns are well founded and derive from the legislative branch’s inability to often time analyze, understand and process information in a timely fashion. Improving Cyber Space It w ill remain an arduous task for anyone and everyone who utilizes cyberspace as a medium for information and data sharing to maintain a relative form of security comfort. Cyberspace in its current form is unregulated by most countries around the world. China is an exception; due to their system of government, the Chinese see it as a strategic interest to hide certain areas of public internet usage. While there are steps in place to promote a healthy relationship in cyberspace from the government on down to private individuals, cyberspace and its capabilities are its infancy in terms of technology, systems and infrastructure. The ceiling is limitless with relation to advancements in all three of these phases. In the short-term, information placed in cyberspace must be carefully weighed for its content value and varying degree of sensitivity. There is a growing demand and shift towards internet usage that has secured access. For example, most websites that handle financial transactions and safeguard personal information have moved towards the â€Å"https://† coding for secure connectivity. Firewalls are an important component as well in handling any would-be hacker or virus from penetrating encrypted data. Such measures are an important step towards maintaining a harmonized cyberspace. The need and demand for privacy is another area of interest in maintaining a safe environment within cyberspace. There’s a profound difference between the location of a terrorist cell on a network server in the Pentagon and an individual’s latest update on a social media site. While both are important for differing reasons, privacy and security are of the utmost importance to maintaining the Internet and its users as safe as possible. Many cyber vulnerabilities exist because of a lack of cyber security awareness on the part of computer users, systems administrators, and technology developers, Such awareness-based vulnerabilities present serious risks to critical infrastructures. 23 Safety and improvements to cyberspace is everyone’s responsibility. With no single governing body in charge of securing and improving cyberspace, it becomes increasingly more important for all users to heed the caveat lectors of their own due diligence and to point out potential trouble areas and vulnerabilities.